The Symbolism of the Meditating Yogi on Indus Seals

The Pashupati Seal 

 

The famous Pashupati seal (Mohenjo-Daro Seal No.420) shows a figure with three faces, seated on a throne in a yogic posture. He is wearing a horned head-dress with a cluster of feathers or leafy branches in the center. His body is adorned with many necklaces, and his arms are covered with bangles. He is surrounded by four wild animals – elephant, rhinoceros, tiger and water buffalo. Below his throne are a pair of ibexes.

Figure 1: Mohenjo-Daro Seal No.420, popularly known as the Pashupati seal. Source: Wikimedia Commons

A similar seal found at Mohenjo-Daro (Seal No.222), also shows the three-faced figure seated in a yogic posture. He is wearing a horned headdress with a leafy branch (probably a branch with three peepal leaves) in the center, and his arms are adorned with bangles. He is seated on a stool having legs carved in the shape of bovine hooves. There are, however, no animals surrounding this yogic figure.

Figure 2: Mohenjo-Daro Seal No.222.

When the Pashupati seal was first discovered, Sir John Marshall (the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928), who led the excavations at the Indus sites, identified the seal as an early prototype of Shiva. In a 1928–29 publication, Marshall summarized his reasons for the identification as follows:

“My reasons for the identification are four. In the first place the figure has three faces and that Siva was portrayed with three as well as with more usual five faces, there are abundant examples to prove. Secondly, the head is crowned with the horns of a bull and the trisula are characteristic emblems of Siva. Thirdly, the figure is in a typical yoga attitude, and Siva was and still is, regarded as a mahayogi—the prince of Yogis. Fourthly, he is surrounded by animals, and Siva is par excellence the “Lord of Animals”(Pashupati) - of the wild animals of the jungle, according to the Vedic meaning of the word pasu, no less than that of domesticated cattle.”[1]

Sir John Marshall’s identification of this seal image with Pashupati Shiva was very well argued, and it’s no surprise that it has stood the test of time. In this article, I shall take a closer look at some of the iconographical aspects of this image from the perspective of multiple cultures and traditions of the subcontinent and outside. 

 

Mulabandhasana Posture

 
The figure on the Pashupati seal is seated in a difficult yoga asana called mulabandhasana, in which the legs are bent below the body such that the heels are pressed together below the groin with the toes pointing downwards. The name comes from the Sanskrit, mula, meaning “root”; bandha, meaning “lock”. Hence, mulabandhasana is also called the root lock pose. 

Figure 3: Mulabandhasana. Source: www.svahayoga.com

The Mulabandhasana restricts and redirects the flow of prana energy through the body. As the name suggests, it also activates the root chakra, or muladhara. This chakra provides a sense of grounding, stability and security. As the lowest chakra, a balanced muladhara is the foundation for activating the rest of the chakras.[2]

 
Since the figure on the Pashupati seal has been depicted in a yogic posture, it is very likely to be that of Lord Shiva, for Shiva is Yogeshwara (The Lord of Yoga) who is credited with revealing the 84 classic asanas of hatha yoga. In Hindu iconography, Shiva is frequently shown seated in a sukhasana or padmasana posture with his eyes closed in meditation, and his hands resting on his knees. 

Figure 4: Modern sculpture of Shiva at Haridwar, on the bank of the Ganges River.  Shiva is seated in the sukhasana posture with his hands in the gyana mudra position. Credit: blaiq CC BY-SA 2.5

Elevated Throne 

 
The figure on the Pashupati seal is seated on an elevated throne, which suggests that the person is of royal or divine status. A pair of ibexes can be seen under the throne. Ibexes are a type of wild mountain goat found in Eurasia, closely related to the markhor goat and the domestic feral goat. Sculptures of Shiva also show him seated on a throne. In some representations, like the one in the Kailasanath Temple at Kanchi, we can spot a pair of domestic goats under the throne. 

Why are goats shown below the throne of Shiva? I shall discuss this in the last section of this article when I look at these images from the Vedic perspective. On Mohenjo-Daro Seal No.222, the meditating yogi is seated on a stool with legs carved in the form of bovine hooves. This may symbolize that the animal vahana of Shiva is the bull.

Figure 5: Shiva as Dakshinamurthy, seated on a throne under a tree. A pair of domestic goat can be seen under the throne. Kailasnatha Temple, Kanchi, c. 700 AD. Source: www.hindu.com

Lord of the Cardinal Directions

The figure on the Pashupati seal has three faces facing the cardinal directions. One may assume that, in reality, there are four faces on which only three can be seen in a frontal view. In Hindu art, Shiva has been often depicted with four faces facing the cardinal directions, which indicates his lordship over the four quarters of the world. This is reflected in his names Vishveshwara (Lord of the Universe) or Vishwanath (Master of the Universe). Apart from Shiva, Brahma is also depicted with four faces, but the worship of Brahma has always been very rare, as are his sculptural depictions.

Figure 6: Shiva with four faces, 10^th century AD, Chola Dynasty. Source: CMA

Even when Shiva is depicted in the form of a stone-pillar or “linga”, the four faces facing the cardinal directions may be carved on the stone. Such lingas with a face are called mukhalinga. A mukhalinga may have one or four faces, and sometimes an invisible fifth face is assumed to be present on top of the linga.

Figure 7: A Nepalese stone mukhalinga (900-1000 CE) on display at the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco, California. Credit: BrokenSphere CC BY-SA 3.0

 Animal Vahanas of the Dikpalas
 

The yogic figure on the Pashupati seal is surrounded by animals, and John Marshall identified this as being symbolic of Shiva as Pashupati, the Lord of Animals. While this interpretation makes sense, from an iconographic perspective it is not very common to see Shiva being surrounded by animals, except the goats or ibexes under his throne. 

A panel from Ellora shows depicts Shiva surrounded by the gods riding their vahanas i.e. animal mounts. This made me wonder if the four animals depicted on the Pashupati seal could be the vahanas of the four Dikpalas i.e. the guardian deities of the cardinal directions. Those familiar with Hinduism would know that in the Puranas and the epics the number of Dikpalas is actually eight (Asta-Dikpala), who rule over the cardinal and intercardinal directions. However, in the Upanishads the Dikpalas are mentioned as four. Here, we shall consider only the four primary Dikpalas – the regents of the cardinal directions.

Figure 8: Shiva seated on a throne in a meditative posture, surrounded by the gods riding their animal mounts. Ellora, 7th century AD. Source: Wikipedia.

Figure 9: The four animals on the Pashupati seal may represent the vahanas of the four dikpalas of the cardinal directions.

Since the earth’s axis is slightly tilted, we may assume that the elephant on the top right represents the north. As per the Puranas, Kubera is the guardian deity of the north, and his vahana is an elephant called Sarvabhauma. Directly opposite to the elephant is the buffalo, which is the mount of Yama, the guardian of the south. Thus, the animals on the north-south axis perfectly match with the vahanas of the Dikpalas.

On the east we see a tiger. We know that the tiger is the mount of the goddess Durga, and not of Indra - the guardian of the east. Indra rode a chariot drawn by horses in the Rig Veda, and was depicted seated on an elephant in later-day Hinduism. How do we reconcile this? 

In the Devi Mahatyma, Durga is portrayed as a manifestation of goddess Lakshmi who is associated with wealth, beauty, fertility, strength and sovereignty. This is why, Durga has all the attributes of Lakshmi, in addition to being a war-goddess. In Mesopotamia, the war-goddess Ishtar or Inanna was also the goddess of grains. Although Lakshmi is regarded as the consort of Vishnu, she was associated with Indra earlier. The New World Encyclopedia states, 

“One legend tells the story of how Lakshmi's association with Indra caused him to pour down fertile rains, thereby allowing crops to grow. Lakshmi's association with the fertile earth and Indra's association with the sky and other celestial phenomenon marks them as the archetypal mythological pair of earth mother and sky god. Later, when Lakshmi left the world after she was insulted by Indra, the world lost all its vigor and vitality in her absence, gaining it back only when she returned.”[3]

Therefore, the tiger is the vahana of Durga-Lakshmi, who was the consort of Indra in the ancient times. By extension, the tiger on this seal can also be regarded as a vahana of Indra, the guardian deity of the east. Incidentally, even Durga and Lakshmi are associated with the east. Perhaps, the Harappans regarded Durga-Lakshmi as the Dikpala of the east? After all, a tiger goddess was quite popular in the Indus Valley, as is evident from the seals. There is no reason why only male deities should be regarded as Dikpalas.

Figure 10: Impression of Kalibangan Cylinder Seal K-65 shows a goddess wearing a horned head-dress and having the hind part of a tiger. Source: harappa.com

Opposite to the tiger is a one-horned rhino, which looks similar to the makara - a hybrid mythical animal with a snout - that serves as the mount of Varuna, the guardian of the west. Since the makara was not seen in the environment of the Harappans, it may have been substituted by an animal that is similar in appearance.

Figure 11: The Four Dikpalas and their vahanas on the Pashupati Seal. The Dikpala of the east is Indra as per the Puranas, but it may have been Durga-Lakshmi during the IVC times.

It is eminently possible, therefore, that the Pashupati seal encapsulates an early understanding of the concept of Dikpalas and their vahanas that is found in Hinduism and Buddhism. The correlations are not exact, as per our current understanding of the Dikpalas, but we know that deities and their vahanas have undergone many changes over time. In that respect, there is sufficient overlap to justify the hypothesis.   

The Horned Headdress

An intriguing element of the Pashupati seal is the horned head-dress with leafy plumes that adorns the seated yogi. John Marshall noted a resemblance between the horned headdress and the trisula of Shiva. However, I do not think that they are equivalent, for a horned helmet or headdress was worn by the warriors and leaders of many ancient tribes, and it seemed to embody a specific meaning.

In India, the horned headdress was worn by great warrior-heroes in the past. A bronze coin issued by the Indo-Greek ruler Agathocles (c.180-165 BC) - which was discovered at Ai-Khanum along the border of the Soviet Union with Afghanistan - shows Krishna on one side, carrying a chakra and a conch, and Balarama on the other, carrying a club and a plough. Both brothers are dressed as warriors, wearing a horned-headdress with peacock plumes.

Figure 12: Bronze coin issued by the Indo-Greek ruler Agathocles (c.180-165 BC), depicting Balarama and Krishna. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Classical Numismatic Group, http://www.cngcoins.com

The Maria Gonds of Bastar in Central India still wear a horned head-dress with a cluster of plumes in the center, during their rituals and celebrations. In Japan, some Samurai warriors wore a horned helmet made with genuine buffalo horns. The Sioux and a few other Native American tribes of the Northern Plains used to wear a helmet with a pair of buffalo horns attached, adorned with furs and war feathers.  Only warriors of certain clans who had achieved brave deeds wore such helmets. Many African tribes of West Africa – in places like Senegal, Liberia, Sierra Leone etc. – wear buffalo-horned masks or caps during their adult initiatory rites. The masks are believed to embody the spirit of fertility and good hunting. Bronze horned helmets have been found in many places of Europe – England, France, Germany, Sweden, and Sardinia etc. Many decorative plates from the early centuries of the Christian era depict Germanic or Nordic warriors wearing horned helmets.

Figure 13: The Bison Horn Maria tribe of Bastar. Credit: Colette Criem

Figure 15: Bronze Age horned helmets from Vekso, Denmark. Credit: Simon Burchell CC BY-SA 3.0

Figure 14: Plains Indian wearing a buffalo horn head-dress, 1899, Source: www.sonofthesouth.net

The horned headdress was depicted on many deities of ancient Egypt such as Hathor, Sobek etc. In Mesopotamia, the gods could be easily differentiated from the common people since they wore a horned crown, with many layers of horns. Evidently, the horned headdress was a common feature of the religious and cultural landscape of the Bronze Age and continued well into the historical period. It’s presence in the Indus Valley, therefore, is no surprise.

Figure 16: Statue of the Egyptian Goddess Hathor, 18th Dynasty, Luxor Museum, Egypt. Credit: Olaf Tausch CC BY-SA 3.0

Figure 17: The Mesopotamian God of the Underworld, Ea (Enki) wearing a triple horned crown. 2004 BCE -1595 BCE, on display at the Iraq Museum in Baghdad. Credit: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin CC BY-SA 4.0

The horned headdress on the Indus seals are of two types – the widespread horns of a water buffalo or the short horns of the zebu bull. The question is, what did the horned headdress represent, particularly in the Indus context? 

It appears to me that the horned headdress, with feathers or a leafy branch in the center, is a symbol of strength, martial ability, virility, righteousness, and fertility. In the Mahabharata, great heroes are often referred to as a “bull amongst men”, for their strength and fighting skills. The horns of a bull or a buffalo may symbolize such attributes. The buffalo horns could also be symbolic of Yama – the Lord of the Underworld – whose vahana is the buffalo. Yama is called “Dharmaraja”, since his duty is to uphold truth and justice in the world. Thus the wearer of the buffalo horns could be a great warrior who fights to uphold righteousness.

The feathers or the leafy branch in the center of the headdress may symbolize the fertility and abundance of nature. It could also symbolize the “Tree of Life”, which arises from the Underworld (ruled by Yama), and brings prosperity, health and abundance. Thus, a deity adorned with a horned headdress with a leafy branch may have been regarded as a powerful warrior who fights to uphold righteousness in the world, and confers fertility and prosperity on the people. We know that Shiva as Rudra was a great warrior and hunter, and even today in Hinduism, Shiva is associated with virility and fertility. There has been a long-standing custom of infertile men or women visiting Shiva temples to pray for a child.

In summary, my study of the Pashupati seal led me to the following observations:

• The Yogic posture shown on the seal is mulabandhasana or root lock pose, which helps in activating the root chakra and promoting a sense of peace and stability.
• The pair of ibexes shown below the throne can be seen in carvings of Shiva. The stool on Mohenjo-Daro Seal No.222 has legs carved in the form of bovine hooves, which may symbolize that the animal vahana of Shiva is the bull.
• The three faces of the seated yogi correspond to the four faces of Shiva in sculptural depictions, of which only three can be seen in a frontal view. This represents Shiva as the Lord of the four quarters of the world.
• The four animals on the seal may represent the four animal vahanas of the four Dikpalas i.e. the guardian deities of the four cardinal directions.
• The buffalo-horned headdress with a leafy plume may not be a representation of Shiva’s trisula, as Sir John Marshall opined, but could symbolize strength, martial ability, virility, righteousness and fertility – all of which are attributes of Shiva.   

In addition to the Pashupati seal and Mohenjo-Daro Seal No.222, many other seals and tablets found at various Indus sites depict the seated yogi wearing a horned headdress.

More Horned-Deity Seals

A Mohenjo-Daro tablet shows the seated yogi flanked on either side by a kneeling devotee and a rearing serpent. The serpent, as we know, is a familiar motif in the iconography of Shiva. Another tablet shows the horned deity seated on a stool under an arch.

Figure 18: Mohenjo-Daro tablet M453A, showing the seated yogi flanked by two rearing serpents

Figure 19: Harappan terracotta tablet H2000-4441, showing the horned deity seated on a stool under an arch.

Two molded terracotta tablets from Harappa “show the horned deity seated in the yogic position on a throne with a reed house or temple to one side”. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer notes that, “These scenes suggest the deity was associated with formal places of worship but was placed in open areas outside the structure during the ritual.”[4]

Figure 20: Horned deity sitting beside a structure, Harappa molded tablet H95-2487/4466-01.

 

Figure 21: Horned deity sitting beside a structure, Harappa molded tablet H95-2487/4466-02

Although Kenoyer thinks that the structure next to the horned deity may be a “temple or a reed house”, it seems too small to be either of those. Instead, it resembles a “horned altar” where burnt sacrificial offerings were made to the deity. Similar horned altars have been found at Tel Be’er Sheva and Megiddo in Israel, and all over Minoan Crete. In both places, pillar worship was popular during the Bronze Age - the pillar being the form in which Shiva is still worshipped in India. Many stones, resembling the Shiva-linga, have been found at Indus sites such as Harappa and Kalibangan.

Among the ancient Semites, a stone pillar was a sacred representation of a deity. The Genesis states. "And Jacob set up a pillar in the place where he talked with him, even a pillar of stone: and he poured a drink offering thereon, and he poured oil thereon” (Genesis 35; 14). This is interesting for Indians still pour milk over the Shiva-linga. The Minoans not only worshipped naturally formed pillars inside caves, but they also had small, dark “pillar rooms” in their palaces where a central pillar was worshiped with oblations.

Figure 21: The Horned Altar of Harappa

Figure 22: Horned Altar from Megiddo, Israel, 10th century BC, Limesone. Source: Oriental Institute, The University of Chicago

Figure 23: Small horned altars from Tel Miqne, Israel, 7th century BC. They were probably used for burning incense. Source: Center for Online Judaic Studies

As per Kenoyer, “The horned figure in the yogic position was probably a common deity worshiped at Indus sites; the motif is found on molded terracotta tablets throughout the Indus region.”[5] This raises a pertinent question: How did the iconography of the horned yogic deity arise in the Harappan psyche? Could this be related to earlier Vedic beliefs?

The Vedic Connection

The two primary forms of Shiva depicted on the Indus seals and tablets – one in which he is standing inside a tree (Sacrifice Seal), and the other in which he is seated in a yogic posture (Pashupati Seal) – may have been inspired by the Vedic hymns, which were composed by the sages in the Indus-Saraswati region, over a period spanning thousands of years prior to the emergence of the IVC.

Talageri and others have argued that the Late Vedic Period had ended by 2000 BCE, when the Indus civilization began to collapse due to a hot of natural calamities such as droughts, earthquakes, and a change in the course of rivers. The Vedic milieu was characterized by copious rainfall, perennial rivers, and abundant cattle and crops, while post 1900 BCE the Indus Valley had been transformed into an arid wasteland with rivers drying up and people deserting its populated cities and migrating in various directions. One of these emigrating tribes were the Mitanni who appear in West Asia at around 1500 BC, with a language and culture that ties them to the Late Books and hymns of the Rig Veda.

It appears that the iconography of Shiva during the Indus period, which was carried forward into later-day Hinduism, was influenced by the cognate Vedic deity Agni-Rudra. The RV hymns state clearly that Agni is also addressed as Rudra [6]. The Satapatha Brahmana tells us, “Agni is Rudra”[7]; and this is reiterated by the Nirukta, an important text on etymology, where it is written “Agni is called Rudra”[8]. The Atharva Samhita explains: “Because he made all the worlds, this Rudra was named Agni”[9].

 
As per the Rig Veda, Agni, the sacrificial fire, “pillars apart Heaven and Earth”[10]. He is the pillar [11] who supports the celestial vault above the earth by his flame or smoke [12]. This dovetails with Shiva’s description as a blazing pillar of light in the Linga Purana, and the reason why Shiva is worshipped in the form of a pillar or shiva-linga.

Agni is Vanaspati (Lord of the Forest), who is praised in the Rig Veda as the ever-green, golden-hued, refulgent Tree with a thousand branches [13]. This is why Shiva is associated with the Peepal or Banyan Tree, and the Gond deity Bada Dev is worshiped under a Saja tree. 

Agni is the priest, the seer, the purifier, possessed of the truth, who imparts inner illumination [14], much like Shiva in his Dakshinamurthy form, sitting under the banyan tree, and imparting wisdom to the four sages.
 

It is well-known that Agni received animal sacrifices (pasuyajna) during the Vedic times. A specific sacrifice called Niruddha pasubandha yajna involving immolation of a he-goat was an obligatory rite performed once in six months or a year to appease Indra and Agni [15]. The goat or ram is the vahana of Agni. The Satapatha Brahmana states that Agni enters the sacrificial goat, such that it is Agni himself who is sacrificed.[16]

This is why we see a markhor goat being offered as a sacrifice to Shiva on the Sacrifice seal, for it is an animal sacred to Agni. This is also the reason why a pair of ibexes are shown under the throne of the seated yogi on the Pashupati seal, for they are the vahanas of Agni-Rudra.

Agni is said to be facing everywhere and to pervade in all directions [17], and is specifically credited with four faces facing the cardinal directions: “Agni with four faces advances himself with his tongue” [18]. Four faces are frequently seen in the iconography of Shiva as well. Agni is also described as a deity with horns, which he sharpens and uses as weapons. This explains the depictions of the horns on the seated yogi.

Rudra, on the other hand is a terrifying deity of unpredictable temper; a marvelous archer and merciless slayer of enemies; the lord of animals (Pashupati) whose symbol is the bull; possesses the ability to inflict diseases and the power to heal; blue-throated, with braided hair, wearing animal skin, and dwelling in the mountains - all of which became attributes of Shiva as well.

Therefore, the iconography of the Pashupati seal can also be explained in the context of the Vedic Agni-Rudra. Let me summarize the connections:

• Agni Rudra is the deity with four faces facing the cardinal directions, and the seated yogi has four faces as well (of which three can be seen)
• Agni is the deity with horns, which he uses as weapons, and the seated yogi is wearing a horned headdress
• Rudra is Pashupati, the lord of animals, and the seated yogi is surrounded by animals
• Agni is the priest, the seer, who imparts inner illumination. This agrees with the appearance of the seated yogi.
• The vahana of Agni is the ram or goat, and a pair of ibexes (i.e. wild mountain goats) are shown under the elevated throne. This is why, on the Sacrifice Seal [19], a markhor goat was sacrificed to the deity in the tree, who is also Agni, for Agni is Vanaspati (Lord of the Forest), and the “Tree with a thousand branches”.

This means that the Pashupati seal corresponds to the iconography of both Shiva and the Vedic Agni-Rudra, since they are the same deities. Evidently, the Harappans were a Late Vedic society where the deities of the Vedic pantheon were taking on a personified form, and probably getting merged with diverse cultural representations and ideas about these deities coming from different parts of the Indus civilization.

Conclusion

It appears that, like modern day India, the Indus Valley was a melting pot of many different tribes and cultures. One of the pre-eminent deities was Lord Shiva – a Late Vedic personification of Agni-Rudra - who was represented with a set of iconographical features that persist up to the current day in Hinduism and many tribal cultures. 

When the Harappan civilization started to collapse at around 1900 BCE due to a number of adverse environmental factors, many Indus tribes moved into India, carrying with them their material technology and religious beliefs. D.P.Agrawal wrote,

“It is strange but true that the type and style of bangles that women wear in Rajasthan today, or the vermilion that they apply on the parting of the hair on the head, the practice of yoga, the binary system of weights and measures, the basic architecture of the houses etc. can all be traced back to the Indus Valley civilization. The cultural and religious traditions of the Harappans provide the substratum for the latter-day Indian civilization.”[20]

Although modern day Hinduism derives from the Indus culture, it has become modified and overlaid with many layers of disparate foreign influences and indigenous religious thoughts over the past 3000 years. On the other hand, many rural and tribal societies have managed to preserve certain aspects of the Indus heritage in a better state than their city- dwelling counterparts. Our perspective of the Indus culture, and our understanding of the symbolisms on the Indus seals and tablets, begins to clear up when we take into account the diverse customs, beliefs and traditions that exist throughout the subcontinent today. 

End Notes

[1] Mackay 1928-29, pp. 74-75.
[2] “Mulabandhasana”, Yogapedia, https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9942/mulabandhasana
[3] “Lakshmi”, New World Encyclopedia, https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/lakshmi
[4] Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, "Master of Animals and Animal Masters in the Iconography of the Indus Tradition", pg 16, taken from the book "The Master of Animals in Old World Iconography" Ed. DEREK B. COUNTS and BETTINA ARNOLD, Budapest 2010.
[5] Ibid
[6] RV I.27.10
[7] SB 5.3.1.10; SB 6.1.3.10
[8] Nirukta 10.1.7
[9] Atharva Samhita 7.87.9
[10] RV V.29.4
[11] RV IV.5.1
[12] RV III.5.10; III.4.6; IV.5.1; IV.6.2.3
[13] RV IX.5.10
[14] RV I.77
[15] Vedic Sacrifices (PDF), Shri Ramakrishna Math, p 11 taken from Wikipedia
[16] SB XIII.ii.7.13
[17] RV I.97.6
[18] RV V.48.5
[19] Bibhu Dev Misra, “Shiva as Bada Dev: Gond Symbolisms on Indus Seals”, Ancient Inquiries Jan 03, 2016, https://www.bibhudevmisra.com/2016/01/shiva-as-bada-dev-gond-symbolisms-on.html
[20] D.P.Agrawal, “An Indocentric Corrective to History of Science”, 2002 < http://www.infinityfoundation.com/indic_colloq/papers/paper_agrawal.pdf>